Penny A. Levickis

The COVID-19 pandemic has created significant challenges for Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services and families, impacting family access to services and their communication and engagement with educators. This study aimed to examine parents' perspectives of family engagement with ECEC services during the pandemic. Primary caregivers in Victoria at the time of recruitment (September-November 2020) were invited to participate. Of the 66 participants who completed an online survey, 25 also took part in semi-structured video call or phone interviews; qualitative findings from these interviews are reported in this paper. Four key themes were conceptualised using a reflexive thematic approach: (1) disruptions to ECEC access and attendance impacting on family routines and relationships, and child development; (2) barriers to family engagement; (3) ECEC educators' support of families and children during the pandemic; and (4) increased parental appreciation of the ECEC profession. Findings revealed that disruptions to ECEC access and routines during the pandemic adversely impacted family engagement, and child learning and social-emotional wellbeing for some families. These were aggravated by other stressors, including increased parental responsibilities in the home, financial and health concerns, and changed work conditions. Findings also demonstrated successful methods used by educators to maintain communication and connections with families. Importantly, parents expressed increasing appreciation of the profession and an increased awareness of the value of family involvement in children's learning. Learnings regarding strategies for effective and alternative ways of engaging families are discussed.

Background: A wealth of evidence supports the important role high-quality parent-child interactions play in children's early language acquisition. However, the impact on later language outcomes remains unclear. Aims: To examine the associations between responsive parental behaviours across the early years and child language outcomes at age 7 years with families from an Australian longitudinal cohort study (N = 1148, 50% female). Methods & procedures: At child ages 12, 24 and 36 months, parents completed a self-report measure of responsive parental behaviours. Child language was directly assessed at age 7 using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, 4th edition (CELF-4), Australian Standardisation. Linear regression was used to examine associations between responsive parental behaviours from 12 to 36 months (consistently high, inconsistent and consistently low responsive parental behaviours at the three time points) and language scores at age 7 years. Adjusted models were run, including the following potential confounders: child sex; birth weight; birth order; maternal education; socio-economic disadvantage; non-English-speaking background; family history of speech-language problems; mother's vocabulary score; maternal mental health score; and mother's age at birth of child. A final adjusted model was run, including the potential confounder variables as well as adjusting for children's earlier language skills. Outcomes & Results: Linear regression results showed children with parents who rated high on responsive parental behaviours at all three time points had higher mean language scores at age 7 than children whose parents reported low responsive parental behaviours across early childhood. This association attenuated after adjusting for earlier child language skills. Conclusions & implications: Findings support the consistent use of responsive parental behaviours across the very early years of childhood to support long-term language outcomes. Findings also suggest that models of surveillance and support which monitor and assist families at multiple time-points over the early years are likely to be most effective for preventing ongoing language difficulties. What this paper adds: What is already known on this subject There is extensive evidence consistently demonstrating the important contribution of aspects of parent-child interaction, specifically responsive parental behaviours, to children's language development. What this paper adds to the existing knowledge Understanding the cumulative benefit of responsive parent-child interactions across the very early years may help to inform preventive interventions and service delivery models for supporting young children's language development. This study demonstrates in a large, population-based cohort the contribution of consistency of responsive parental behaviours during infancy and toddlerhood to school-age language outcomes, accounting for other child, family and environmental factors. Capturing regular parent behaviours via self-report during the early years may be a more efficient and less costly method than parent-child interaction observations to monitor the home language-learning environment during routine developmental checks. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Findings support the need for surveillance of children and families in the early years, ensuring that intervention occurs when families need it most, that is, support is responsive to changing needs and that nuanced advice and support strategies are provided to activate positive developmental cascades. Capturing both parent behaviours and child language may assist clinicians to identify those families who may benefit from parent-child interaction intervention.

High levels of maternal responsiveness are associated with healthy cognitive and emotional development in infants. However, depression and anxiety can negatively impact individual mothers' responsiveness levels and infants' expressive language abilities. Australian mother-infant dyads (N = 48) participated in a longitudinal study examining the effect of maternal responsiveness (when infants were 9- and 12-months), and maternal depression and anxiety symptoms on infant vocabulary size at 18-months. Global maternal responsiveness ratings were stronger predictors of infants' vocabulary size than levels of depression and anxiety symptoms. However, depression levels moderated the effect of maternal responsiveness on vocabulary size. These results highlight the importance of screening for maternal responsiveness-in addition to depression-to identify infants who may be at developmental risk. Also, mothers with elevated depression need support to first reduce their symptoms so that improvements in their responsiveness have the potential to be protective for their infant's language acquisition.

Background: Screening and surveillance of development are integral to ensuring effective early identification and intervention strategies for children with vulnerabilities. However, not all developmental skills have reliable screening processes, such as early language ability. Methods: We describe how a set of early life factors used in a large, prospective community cohort from Australia are associated with language abilities across the preschool years, and determine if either an accumulation of risk factors or a clustering of risk factors provide a feasible approach to surveillance of language development in preschool children. Results: There were 1,208 children with a 7-year language outcome. The accumulation of early life factors increased the likelihood of children having low language skills at 7-years. Over a third of children with typical language skills (36.6%) had ≤ two risks and half of the children with low language (50%) had six or more risks. As the number of factors increases the risk of having low language at 7-years increases, for example, children with six or more risks had 17 times greater risk, compared to those with ≤ two risks. Data collected from 1,910 children at 8- to 12-months were used in the latent class modeling. Four profile classes (or groups) were identified. The largest group was developmentally enabled with a supportive home learning environment (56.2%, n = 1,073). The second group was vulnerable, both developmentally and in their home learning environment (31.2%, n = 596); the third group was socially disadvantaged with a vulnerable home learning environment (7.4%, n = 142); the final group featured maternal mental health problems and vulnerable child socio-emotional adjustment (5.2%, n = 99). Compared to developmentally enabled children, the risk of low language at 7-years was greater for children in the three other groups. Conclusions: The cumulative and cluster risk analyses demonstrate the potential to use developmental surveillance to identify children within the first years of life who are at risk of language difficulties. Importantly, parent-child interaction and the home learning environment emerged as a consistent cluster. We recommend they be adopted as the common focus for early intervention and universal language promotion programs.

Parental responsiveness is vital for child language development. Its accurate measurement in clinical settings could identify families who may benefit from preventative interventions; however, coding of responsiveness is time-consuming and expensive. This study investigates in a clinical context the validity of the Parental Responsiveness Rating Scale (PaRRiS): a time- and cost-effective global rating scale of parental responsiveness. Child health nurse (CHN) PaRRiS ratings are compared to a detailed coding of parental responsiveness. Thirty parent-child dyads completed an 8-min free-play session at their 27-month health review. CHNs rated the interaction live using PaRRiS. Videos of these interactions were then blindly coded using the more detailed coding system. PaRRiS ratings and detailed codings were compared using correlational analysis and the Bland-Altman method. PaRRiS and the detailed coding showed a moderate-strong correlation (rs (28) = 0.57, 95% CI [0.26, 0.77]) and high agreement (Bland-Altman). CHNs using PaRRiS can capture parental responsiveness as effectively as trained clinicians using detailed coding. This may allow (1) increased accuracy and efficiency in identifying toddlers at risk for long-term language difficulties; (2) more accurate allocation to speech and language therapy (SLT) services; (3) decreased burden on SLT resources by empowering CHNs to make more informed referral decisions.